Humans are inherently attracted to all that is alive; this attraction is called biophilia. Biophilia is an evolutionary trait which contributes to self-preservation and reproduction, and it does so by providing us with useful information about the natural environment. Biophilia was initially used by Erich Fromm to describe the psychological orientation to preserve life, and subsequently by Edward O. Wilson to describe the evolutionary adaptation that allows us to develop an affective bond with the living world (the Biophilia Hypothesis). Wilson identified two principal constructs of biophilia: fascination for and affiliation with life. Biophilia depends on the ability to focus attention on natural stimuli effortlessly, to be fascinated by Nature, and the ability to connect emotionally to the various life forms, namely to affiliate with them. In this article, the noun “Nature” written with a capital first letter indicates the biosphere and all the abiotic matrices (soil, air, and water) in which it flourishes, thus avoiding confusion with “nature,” that is, the intrinsic quality of a certain creature and/or phenomenon. Biophilia steers our preference for natural environments. Humans have an unlearned predisposition to pay attention to and respond positively to content, characteristics, and patterns of stimulation that were favorable for survival; this predisposition was instilled over thousands of years of evolution in the African savanna (the Savanna Hypothesis). Hence, a preferred setting maximizes security and seclusion (Prospect-Refuge Theory), offers information that enables us to comprehend and predict (Preference Matrix), and allows restoration from the elements of the environment that threaten well-being (the “relax and renew” response). Natural environments are consistently preferred and are more restorative than urban environments. The importance of contact with Nature extends beyond aesthetics to include a range of benefits in terms of enhancement of physiological well-being (Stress Recovery Theory) and recovery from mental fatigue (Attention Restoration Theory). Biophilia as a phylogenetic process takes account of the different types of Nature (wild, rural, urban) and different human cultures (Paleolithic, Neolithic, bourgeois), whereas as an ontogenetic process it depends directly on exposure frequency and time spent in contact with Nature. This brings to a modern-day phenomenon, namely the fact that many children are deprived of Nature. Indeed, experiences of Nature are said to be becoming extinct, and a consequence of this is the atrophy of biophilia. To sustain Nature experiences in urban and indoor settings, biophilic design was proposed. Biophilic design is an application of the Biophilia Hypothesisin architectural design and urban planning to sustain affiliation with Nature, which can lead to the formation of positive attitudes and behaviors toward natural environments.

Biophilia is a human personality trait described initially by Erich Fromm and later by E.O. Wilson, both of whom agree that biophilia has a biological basis and that it is fundamental to develop harmonious relationships between humans and the biosphere. This review aims at establishing a definition of biophilia as an evolutionary process. To this end, the most significant studies of evolutionary psychology were considered, to outline the fundamental characteristics of a hypothetical biophilic temperament/personality and to reconstruct a plausible history of biophilia as an evolutionary process. This process considers different typologies of Nature (wilderness, rural, and urban) and human cultures (Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Burg) and leads us to consider environmental preference and psycho-physiological recovery in relation to the threshold of time spent in contact with Nature. Unfortunately, modern people, especially children, lack direct and frequent contact with Nature and this can have negative consequences on their physical and mental health. Biophilic design, considering the evolutionary roots of this architectural approach, is an effective way of planning/designing interior and urban environments to stimulate the innate biophilia of the individual.

Affective ecology is the branch of ecology that deals with the cognitive and emotional relationships that humanity and Gaia establish between themselves. In the last ten years, affective ecology has engaged above all in the experimental verification of the biophilia hypothesis and in defining the two fundamental constructs of biophilia: fascination and affiliation. The definition of such constructs allows us to estimate more precisely the psychological effects of biophilia. Fascination for Nature triggers the restoration of cognitive skills after mental fatigue, while the feeling of affiliation for Nature has a stress-reducing effect. The experimental outcomes allow us to design an ideal biophilic environment, able to stimulate fascination and affiliation for Nature. A biophilic environment is the ideal environment for developing naturalist intelligence. The future perspectives of affective ecology concern the search for high biophilic quality environments, which can be both inner environments, as in the case of Green Mindfulness in ecopsychology, and outer environments as in the case of Biophilic Design in architecture.

Biophilic design is an architectural model that offers the possibility to create the Nature-based Innovative Learning Environment (ILE), which might support cognitive processes and stimulate affiliation with Nature. Bracing Biophilia is an exploratory research programme which verifies the effect of Nature-based ILEs on pupils’ attentional performance and affiliation with Nature. We compared a conventional learning environment with two Nature-based environments made according to biophilic design and the Biophilic Quality Index (BQI). The experimental observations spanned three school years; they were carried out within a conventional learning environment in the first year and in a biophilic designed one in the next two. Measurements, that is the administration of the Perceived Restorativeness Scale-children, the Continuous Performance test, and the Connectedness to Nature Scale-children, were deployed at regular intervals at three different times (autumn, winter, spring) of each school year. Results show that learning environments with biophilic design, in addition to being preferred and perceived as more restorative, are more effective in supporting pupils' attentional performance than conventional learning environments and, over time, strengthen the feeling of affiliation with Nature. A BQI certified biophilic design learning environment turns out to be the best of all indoor environments and just below the outdoor learning environment used as a comparison of biophilic design indoor environment. Although the objective limitation of this study is the number of pupils, the trend appears clear and cannot be attributed to pupils’ cognitive maturation processes. This case study allows us to appreciate the importance of the restorative learning environments with biophilic design capable of supporting the learning process and strengthening the affiliation with Nature.

Biophilic Design is an applied science that takes into account the most recent findings on the relationship between human beings and Nature to render artificial spaces more coherent with innate human biophilia. It is well known that the application of Biophilic Design reduces stress, stimulates creativity and clear thinking, improves physical and psychological wellbeing and accelerates healing. Considering the relentless process of global urbanization, these benefits will become increasingly important in the design of our urban spaces, buildings and interiors. The aim of the present study is to develop a conceptual framework for Biophilic Design, reducing the gap between scientific research and its translation into functional applications. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an in

(1) Background: Connectedness with Nature is a personality trait that influences our relationship with Nature. But Nature is not all the same. Wilderness is Nature in its original form, the form within which human beings have evolved as a species, while what we refer to as domesticated and urban Nature are relatively recent products of our interaction with the environment. (2) Aim: The main purpose of this study was to verify whether the individual trait “connection to Nature” influences the perception of restoration, preference for and familiarity with three types of Nature: wilderness, domesticated and urban. (3) Results: Regardless of the level of connection to Nature, wilderness is always perceived as more restorative than the domesticated or urban environment. Individuals with higher connectedness prefer wilderness more than others, and they are able to recognise the restorative value of domesticated environments more than those with medium or low levels of connectedness. Less connected individuals tend to prefer domesticated environments, although wilderness is more familiar to them. (4) Conclusions: This study shows that, despite our detachment from Nature, wilderness is the prototype of Nature, and this finding offers a plausible evolutionary explanation of solastalgia.

Connectedness to Nature and the ability to perceive the restorative value of places characterised by the presence of natural elements are personal characteristics that, when appropriately measured, make it possible to predict an individual’s attitude towards pro-environmental behaviour. While these characteristics have an innate basis, they are also shaped by personal experiences and various cognitive, affective and sociocultural factors. In this exploratory study in North-eastern Italy, we delve into an interdisciplinary field that explores the relationship between the environment of the residential area and its impact on children's attitudes toward Nature. To do so, we conducted a comprehensive questionnaire amongst 533 primary schoolchildren, aged 6-11 years, to gauge their connectedness to Nature, their perceptions of restorativeness in surrounding natural settings, and their schoolyard environment. Drawing from optical satellite imageries, we calculated a combined multispectral index to assess the naturalness degree of participants' residential areas, focusing on their 68 residential areas, located in three administrative Italian Regions (Trentino Alto Adige, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto), which were classified into four different classes with respect to their level of presence of natural areas ("coastal," "low," "average," "high"). By performing non-parametric tests for multiple comparisons amongst groups, we detected a significantly higher level of connectedness to Nature amongst children living in areas with high naturalness, compared to those living in areas with average or low naturalness. Perceived restorativeness scores exhibit a similar trend to that of connectedness to Nature, reinforcing the importance of natural spaces in fostering positive attitudes towards the environment. This result confirms that accessibility and the viewability of natural spaces, even semi-natural ones, seemed to play a crucial role in children's preference for these environments. However, schoolyards were consistently perceived as less regenerative than natural places, regardless of the naturalness of the neighbourhood. These findings raise intriguing questions about the potential consequences of inadequate exposure to Nature on children's affiliation to the natural world and possible subsequent effects on pro-environmental behaviour in adulthood. By shedding light on the complex interplay between personal characteristics, environment and attitudes towards Nature, our study underscores the significance of fostering a deeper connection with natural spaces to nurture a sustainable and environmentally conscious society.

This study investigates the relationship between the level to which a person feels connected to Nature and that person’s ability to perceive the restorative value of a natural environment. We assume that perceived restorativeness may depend on an individual’s connection to Nature and this relationship may also vary with the biophilic quality of the environment, i.e., the functional and aesthetic value of the natural environment which presumably gave an evolutionary advantage to our species. To this end, the level of connection to Nature and the perceived restorativeness of the environment were assessed in individuals visiting three parks characterized by their high level of “naturalness” and high or low biophilic quality. The results show that the perceived level of restorativeness is associated with the sense of connection to Nature, as well as the biophilic quality of the environment: individuals with different degrees of connection to Nature seek settings with different degrees of restorativeness and biophilic quality. This means that perceived restorativeness can also depend on an individual’s “inclination” towards Nature.